The English Civil War
Charles was faced with civil war. The first civil war began in the wake of an Irish rebellion. Parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an army, fearing he would use it against England. Parliament wanted to control the army. Soon after, Parliament drew up the Grand Remonstrance, a list of objections to royal policy. Charles left London and negotiations broke down.
Charles' support came from the north and west of England, including Catholics, moderate Anglicans, the aristocracy, and conservative agricultural interests. The royalist supporters were called Cavaliers. Parliament's support came from the south and east of England, including London, the merchants and middle class, Presbyterians, and Puritans. Parliament's supporters were called Roundheads because they cut their hair short.
The issues of the civil wars were political, economic, and religious. The basic political issue was the struggle between the king and Parliament for supremacy. The question whether a national church or religious freedom should exist for several Protestant groups was the religious issue. The development of new social and economic groups, the gentry, merchants, and manufacturers, was the third issue. The Roundheads wanted a greater role in the government. To complicate matters, these issues were intertwined. The gentry and merchants were predominantly Puritans, wanting more change in the church and a greater participation in government. These groups were usually advocates for parliament supremacy.
At first Charles's army won most of the battle because it had superior military experience. Nevertheless, Parliament controlled London, the political and commercial center of England. Oliver Cromwell emerged as a powerful general and political leader of the parliamentary forces. His army was so successful that it soon became the backbone of the parliamentary forces. Charles and the Cavalier forces were forced to surrender at the Battle of Naseby in 1646.
The war may have ended then had division not developed within the parliamentary party. Most of the members wanted to restore Charles as a limited monarch and establish the Presbyterian faith as the national church. However, a minority, known as the Independents and headed by Oliver Cromwell, distrusted Charles and wanted religious freedom for themselves and for other Protestants. Taking advantage of the division, Charles renewed the war in 1648; but after a brief campaign was again defeated and captured.
The second defeat of the king gave control of the situation to the Independents. Cromwell saw Charles as a threat. The Independents conducted a purge of Parliament, eliminating those who still wanted to negotiate with Charles. The remaining members were called the Rump Parliament. Charles was charged with treason and convicted by a special court. He was beheaded on January 30, 1649.
England Under the Commonwealth
Commonwealth and Protectorate
After Charles' death, the House of Lords was abolished and England became a republic. However, there was no agreement as to what kind of republic it should be. Some wanted full political rights for all male citizens; others, including Cromwell, did not trust the common people. The new republic established was the Commonwealth. The Rump Parliament continued as the legislature. A council of state was set up in place of the king. Cromwell, however, came to dominate both bodies. Scotland and Ireland refused to recognize the Commonwealth, and Cromwell crushed rebellions there. After a few years people became dissatisfied because Parliament refused to hold elections. In 1653 Cromwell disbanded the Rump Parliament and called a new assembly chosen by the leaders of the army. When the new assembly proved ineffective because of disagreements, the army leaders wrote the Instrument of Government, England's first and only written constitution. The Instrument redistributed the franchise by granting representation to groups that had grown wealthy and populous. Parliament was to meet every three years. However, decisive control remained with Cromwell, who was made Lord Protector for life. Dissension continued, and Cromwell's government became more and more a military dictatorship. The principle reason his government failed was the absence of support by the majority of England.
When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard tried to carry on but could not control the government. The Long Parliament, with the previously purged members, met and voted to dissolve itself after writs were sent out for a new Parliament. The new Parliament arranged the restoration of Charles II.
Restoration
In 1660 England again became a monarchy. Charles II was fun-loving and known in history as the Merry Monarch. Although he was no more willing than his father had been to let Parliament rule, Charles was cautious and tried to stay on good terms. Charles promised to respect Parliament and to observe the Magna Carta and the Petition of Right. Parliament established the House of Lords and the Anglican episcopate and reduced the army to a small force. The royal prerogatives were restored. The king could still call and dismiss Parliament at will and was voted a yearly income from state funds for the duration of his reign, becoming the first English monarch to receive a regular sum.
Parliament was determined to exclude non-Anglicans from government. Government officials not only had to swear allegiance to the crown but also had to be practicing Anglicans. The law requiring this exclusion was the Test Act. In 1678 Parliament passed the Disabling Act, barring Catholics from parliamentary membership.
Two important developments came out of Charles' reign. The first one was the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, a safeguard against arbitrary imprisonment. Anyone who believed he had been unjustly imprisoned could get a writ or habeas corpus to force the government to explain why he was being held.
Another development was the emergence of political parties. The Whig party supported Parliament; the Tory Party supported the king.
Charles was succeeded by his brother, James. Because James was Catholic, the Whigs had tried to bar him from succession before Charles died, but were unsuccessful.
Unlike his brother, James was not cautious. He enlarged the army, defeated rebellion by Protestant pretenders to the throne, and ruled with little regard for tact. In open violation of the Test Act, James filled important positions in the army and civil services with Catholics. The English were prepared to tolerate James as long as they thought he would be succeeded by his two Protestant daughters. However, when a son was born and a Catholic succession seemed assured, the Glorious Revolution became inevitable.
