Scientific Ladies and Geneva Goddesses

René Descartes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, two influential philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries, upheld views of women in their works that conflicted with those which society maintained at the time. 17th and 18th century Europe operated on the principle that women's societal role included one of effective and efficient procreation, management of domestic affairs, and an overall stifled and muted existence. Rousseau, on the other hand, and in particular, Descartes, advocate that women lived, like men, as intelligent, reasoning, thinking human beings who also possess the ability to make scientific, literary, and cultural contributions to society.

The Scientific Revolution of 17th century Europe served as fertile ground for Descartes' Discourse on Method for Conducting One's Reason Well and for Seeking the Truth in the Sciences. During this time in history, concepts such as the importance of academic growth and validity of approaching proven truths with skepticism seized the social circles of Europe. As defined by Encyclopedia Britannica, the Scientific Revolution included ideas such as: “the reeducation of common sense in favour of abstract reasoning; …the view of nature as a machine rather than as an organism; [and] the development of an experimental method that sought definite answers to certain limited questions couched in the framework of specific theories.” This definition encompasses the central ideas of the Scientific Revolution that later led to smaller offshoots of various schools of thought, such as skepticism. A skeptical approach as applied to a scientific or philosophical situation includes assessing that situation with absolute doubt in mind regarding fixed truths and knowledge by making note of contradictory arguments negating the original claim. René Descartes implemented this technique in his Discourse as an approach to logically deduce his way to discovering indisputable truths.

He writes, “…considering how many opinions there can be about the very same matter that are held by learned people without there ever being the possibility of more than one opinion being true, I deemed everything that was merely probable to be well-nigh false” (Discourse 5). By upholding this view, Descartes underscores the importance of reason in a human being's life in order to distinguish truth from illusion. He maintains that ability to reason is equal in all men and women: “…the power of judging well and of distinguishing the true from the false…is naturally equal in all men, and that the diversity of our opinions does not arise from the fact that some people are more reasonable than others, but solely from the fact that we lead our thoughts along different paths and do not take the same things into consideration” (1).

Also through use of reason and emphasis of its central role, Descartes arrives at the conclusion that the mind exists as a separate entity from the body, a concept referred to as mind/body dualism. Descartes uses this concept to show women's place in society lacks obvious evidence of inferiority, therefore females too can provide insight into the study of science and philosophy. Descartes acquired quite a large female fan base and readership through publication of this concept, thereby providing fodder for a growing attempt by women to become more integral members of society. This led to a surge in women taking interest in science and other scholarly pursuits while at the same time polishing and refining cultural components such as manners, language, and style: “Upper-class women became increasingly influential in shaping tastes and ideas…[and] a number of women in the upper strata of society became scientifically knowledgeable, and some made noteworthy contributions to the new science” (Patterns in Western Civilization 24). These women were referred to as “Scientific Ladies” a term coined from the continuing fate of women as only women and not, in fact, scientists.

These women assisted men, and even oftentimes pursued their own courses of study, in their scientific investigations and pursuits, however lacked the intellectual capacity and proper educational background (by social standards) to offer any valid theoretical contributions. In reality, several of these “ladies” made significant contributions to their respective field of science. Astronomy, in particular, received the contributions of women such as Caroline Hersch, an expert on comets, who actually achieved wide fame and respect for her extensive knowledge in the astronomical field. Another such female astronomer, Maria Winckelmann Kirch, discovered specific comets and recorded personal observations of the Aurora Borealis, however did not receive accreditation. Descartes' introduction of treating and viewing women in an equal light to men in their capacity to reason helped to somewhat alleviate the social constraints placed on women. According to Ruth Perry, “Cartesian assumptions and Cartesian method, ironic as it may seem, liberated women intellectually and thus physically, by making it possible for numbers of them to participate in serious mainstream philosophical discourse” (172). Descartes' method of the mind's distinct separation from the body essentially meant that women could, in some sense, “think of themselves as…equal despite the general belief in their physical inferiority to men” (Patterns in Western Civilization 30).